Thanks to Dr. Mark Chamberlain and colleagues at UNILEVER for sharing the following references about alternatives to skin irritation testing in animals. These researchers have been active in this area for quite a number of years as indicated by the fact that this bibliography includes approx. 85 papers dating from 1973 to present. Information about many aspects of dermal in vitro research can be found here. Some examples include QSAR, percutaneous penetration/absorption, local lymph node assay, corrosivity, and photo -allergy, -irritation, -sensitization, -toxicity.

Walters, K. A., K. R. Brain, W. E. Dressler, D. M. Green, D. Howes, V. J. James, C. K. Kelling, A. C. Watkinson, and S. D. Gettings. Percutaneous Penetration of N-Nitroso-N-Methyldodecylamine through Human Skin In Vitro: Application from Cosmetic Vehicles. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1997. 35: 705-712.

Dearden, J.C., M.D. Barratt, R. Benigni, D.W. Bristol, R.D. Combes, M.T.D. Cronin, P.N. Judson, M.P. Payne, A.M. Richard, M. Tichy, A.P. Worth, and J.J. Yourick. The Development and Validation of Expert Systems for Predicting Toxicity. The Report and Recommendations of an ECVAM/ECB Workshop (ECVAM Workshop 24). ATLA 1997. 25: 223-252.

Basketter, D.A., F.S. Reynolds, and M. York. Predictive Testing in Contact Dermatitis. Irritant Dermatitis. Clinics in Dermatology 1997. 15: 637-644.

Howes, D. A Comparative Study of In Vitro Percutaneous Absorption Tests. IN: Animal Alternatives, Welfare and Ethics. 1997. Eds. L.F.M. Van Zutphen and M. Balls. Elsevier Science B.V., pp. 1113-1121.

Roberts, D.W. and D.A. Basketter. Further Evaluation of the Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship for Skin-Sensitizing Alkyl Transfer Agents. Contact Dermatitis 1997. 37: 107-112.

Basketter, D. A. Skin Irritation Testing - What are the Alternatives? Comments Toxicology 1997. 6: 87-100.

Jones, P.A., V.A. Baker, A. Irwin, and L.K. Earl. Modulation of MCF-7 Cell Proliferative Responses by Manipulation of Assay Conditions. Toxic. in Vitro 1997. 11:769-773.

Holliday, M.R., E. Corsini, S. Smith, D.A. Basketter, R.J. Dearman, and I. Kimber. Differential Induction of Cutaneous TNF-a and IL-6 by Topically Applied Chemicals. American J. of Contact Dermatitis 1997. 8: 158-164.

Lovell, W. W. In Vitro Phototoxicity Tests for Fragrances. IN: "Fragrances". 1997. Eds. P.J. Frosch, J.D. Frosch, J.D. Johansen and I.R. White. Springer-Verlag, pp 175-181.

Earl, L. K., D.A. Basketter, M.D. Barratt, E. G. Whittle, and M. Chamberlain. A Strategy for the Assessment of Skin Corrosion and Irritation Without Animal Testing. Tenside Surf. Det. 1997. 34: 446-449.

Roper, C. S., D. Howes, P. G. Blain, and F. M. Williams. Percutaneous Penetration of 2-Phenoxyethanol through Rat and Human Skin. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1997. 35: 1009-1016.

Walters, K. A., K. R. Brain, D. Howes, V.J. James, A.L. Kraus, N.M. Teetsel, M. Toulon, A. C. Watkinson, and S. D. Gettings. Percutaneous Penetration of Octyl Salicylate from Representative Sunscreen Formulations through Human Skin In Vitro. Fd Chem Toxicol. 1997. 35: 1219-1225.

Bagley, D. M., J.R. Gardner, G. Holland, R.W. Lewis, J-F. Regnier, D.A. Stringer, and A.P. Walker. Skin Irritation: Reference Chemicals Data Bank. Toxic. In Vitro 1996. 10: 1-6.

Barratt, M.D. Quantitative-Structure-Activity Relationships (QSARs) for Skin Corrosivity of Organic Acids, Bases, and Phenols: Principal Components and Neural Network Analysis of Extended Datasets. Toxic. in Vitro 1996. 10: 85-94.

Whittle, E.D., M.D. Barratt, J.A. Carter, D.A. Basketter, and M. Chamberlain. Skin Corrosivity Potential of Fatty Acids: In Vitro Rat and Human Skin Testing and QSAR Studies. Toxic. in Vitro 1996. 10: 95-100.

Barratt, M.D. Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships for Skin Irritation and Corrosivity of Neutral and Electrophilic Organic Chemicals. Toxic. in Vitro 1996. 10: 247-256.

Barratt, M.D., M.B. Dixit, and P.A. Jones. The Use of In Vitro Cytotoxicity Measurements in QSAR Methods for the Prediction of Skin Corrosivity Potential of Acids. Toxic. in Vitro 1996. 10: 283-290.

Howes, D., R. Guy, J. Hadgraft, J. Heylings, U. Hoeck, F. Kemper, H. Maibach, J-P. Marty, H. Merk, J. Parra, D. Rekkas, I. Rondelli, H. Schaefer, U. Tauber, and N. Verbiese. Methods for Assessing Percutaneous Absorption (The Report and Recommendations of ECVAM Workshop 13). ATLA 1996. 24: 81-106.

DeSilva, O., D.A. Basketter, M.D. Barratt, E. Corsini, M.T.D. Cronin, P.K. Das, J. Degwert, A. Enk, J.L. Garrigue, C. Hauser, I. Kimber, J-P. Lepoittevin, J. Peguet, and M. Ponec. Alternative Methods for Skin Sensitisation Testing. The Report and Recommendations of ECVAM Workshop 19. ATLA 1996. 24: 683-705.

Loveless, S.E., G.S. Ladics, G.F. Gerberick, C. A. Ryan, D.A. Basketter, E.W. Scholes, R.V.House, J. Hilton, R.J. Dearman, and I. Kimber. Further evaluation of the local lymph node assay in the final phase of an international collaborative trial. Toxicology 1996. 108: 141-152.

Basketter, D.A., G.F. Gerberick, I. Kimber, and S.E. Loveless. The Local Lymph Node Assay: A Viable Alternative to Currently Accepted Skin Sensitization Tests. Fd. Chem. Toxic. 1996. 34: 985-997.

Chamberlain, M. and D.A. Basketter. The Local Lymph Node Assay: Status of Validation. Fd. Chem. Toxic. 1996. 34: 999-1002.

Howes, D. Percutaneous Absorption: A Strategy for Risk Assessment. IN: Alternatives to Animal Testing. 1996. Eds. S.G. Lisansky, R. Macmillan and J. Dupuis. CPL Press, pp. 103-111.

Basketter, D.A., E.W. Scholes, M. Chamberlain, and M.D. Barratt. Skin Allergy - Identifying the Causative Chemicals: A Strategy to Replace Animal Tests. IN: Alternatives to Animal Testing. 1996. Eds. S.G. Lisansky, R. Macmillan and J Dupuis. CPL Press, pp 225-230.

Basketter, D.A., M.D. Barratt, M. Chamberlain, H.A. Griffiths, and M. York. The Identification and Classification of Chemicals Causing Skin Irritation: A Strategy to Replace Animal Tests. IN: Alternatives to Animal Testing. 1996. Eds. S.G. Lisansky, R. Macmillan and J. Dupuis. CPL Press, pp 231-236.

Pape, W.J.W., H. Spielmann, H. Holzhutter, O. de Silva, J. Dupuis, G.F. Gerberick, W. Lovell, Th. Maurer, J. Potthast, W. Steiling, G. Pechovitch, and M. Balls. EU/COLIPA Validation Project on In Vitro Photoirritation Testing. IN: Alternatives to Animal Testing. 1996. Eds. S. G. Lisansky, R. Macmillan and J. Dupuis. CPL Press, pp 334-335.

Arlett, C., L. Earl, J. Ferguson, N. Gibbs, J. Hawk, L. Henderson, B. Johnson, W. Lovell, H.Du.P. Menage, S. Navaratnam, C. Proby, S. Steer, and A. Young. Workshop Report. British Photodermatology Group Workshop. Predictive In Vitro Methods for Identifying Photosensitizing Drugs: A Report. Brit. J. Dermatol. 1995 132: 271-274.

Barratt, M.D. Quantitative Structure Activity Relationships for Skin Corrosivity of Organic Acids, Bases, and Phenols. Toxicol. Lett. 1995. 75: 169-176.

Barratt, M.D. The Role of Structure-Activity Relationships and Expert Systems in Alternative Strategies for the Determination of Skin Sensitisation, Skin Corrosivity and Eye Irritation. ATLA 1995. 23: 111-122.

Botham, P.A., M. Chamberlain, M.D. Barratt, R.D. Curren, D.J. Esdaile, J.R. Gardner, V.C. Gordon, B. Hildebrand, R.W. Lewis, M. Liebsch, P. Logemann, R. Osborne, M. Ponec, J-F. Regnier, W. Steiling, A.P. Walker, and M. Balls. A Prevalidation Study on In Vitro Skin Corrosivity Testing. The Report and Recommendations of ECVAM Workshop 6. ATLA 1995. 23: 219-255.

Lewis, R.W. and D.A. Basketter. Transcutaneous Electrical Resistance: Application in Predicting Skin Corrosives. IN: Irritant Dermatitis. New Clinical and Experimental Aspects. 1995. Eds. P. Elsner and H.I. Maibach. "Current Problems in Dermatology." Vol. 23, Karger, pp 243-255.

Brain, K.R., K.A. Walters, V.J. James, W.E. Dressler, D. Howes, D.K. Delling, and S.J. Moloney, and S.D. Gettings. Pecutaneous Penetration of Dimethylnitrosamine Through Human Skin In Vitro: Application from Cosmetic Vehicles. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1995. 33: 315-322.

Barratt, M.D. Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships for Skin Permeability. Toxic. in Vitro 1995. 9: 27-37.

Basketter, D.A., E.W. Scholes, M. Chamberlain, and M.D. Barratt. An Alternative Strategy to the Use of Guinea Pigs for the Identification of Skin Sensitization Hazard. Fd. Chem. Toxic. 1995. 33: 1051-1056.

Basketter, D.A. and M. Chamberlain. Validation of Skin Sensitization Assays. (Commentary). Fd. Chem. Toxic. 1995. 33: 1057-1059.

Ashby, J., D.A. Basketter, D. Paton, and I. Kimber. Structure-Activity Relationships in Skin Sensitization Using the Murine Local Lymph Node Assay. Toxicology 1995. 103: 177-194.

Roper, C.S., D. Howes, P.G. Blain, and F.M. Williams. Prediction of the Percutaneous Penetration and Metabolism of Dodecyl Decaethoxylate in Rats Using In Vitro Methods. Arch. Toxicol. 1995. 69: 649-654.

Barratt, M.D. QSARs for Skin Corrosivity of Organic Acids, Bases and Phenols. IN: QSAR and Molecular Modelling: Concepts, Computational Tools and Biological Applications, 1995. Eds. E. Sanz, J. Giraldo and F. Manaut. Prous Science Publishers, pp 157-159.

Basketter, D.A., E.G. Whittle, and M. Chamberlain. Identification of Irritation and Corrosion Hazards to Skin: An Alternative Strategy to Animal Testing. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1994. 32: 539-542.

Basketter, D.A., E.W. Scholes, and I. Kimber. The Performance of the Local Lymph Node Assay with Chemicals Identified as Contact Allergens in the Human Maximization Test. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1994. 32: 543-547.

Dearman, R.J., E.W. Scholes, L.S.P. Ramdin, D.A. Basketter, and I. Kimber. The Local Lymph Node Assay: An Interlaboratory Evaluation of Interleukin 6 (IL-6) Production by Draining Lymph Node Cells. J. Appl. Toxicol. 1994. 14: 287-291.

Young, J.R. and M.J. How. Product Classification as Corrosive or Irritant by Measuring pH and Acid/Alkali Reserve. IN: In Vitro Skin Toxicology. Irritation, Phototoxicity, Sensitization. 1994. Eds. A. Rougier, A.M. Goldberg, and H.I. Maibach. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., pp 23-27.

Chamberlain, M. and L. Earl. Use of Cell Cultures in Irritancy Testing. IN: In Vitro Skin Toxicology. Irritation, Phototoxicity, Sensitization. 1994. Eds. A. Rougier, A.M. Goldberg, and H.I. Maibach. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. pp 59-67.

Basketter, D.A. and E. Whittle. A Review of the Human In Vitro Skin Corrosivity Test. IN: In Vitro Skin Toxicology. Irritation, Phototoxicity, Sensitization. 1994. Eds. A. Rougier, A.M. Goldberg, and H.I. Maibach. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. pp 151-159.

Lovell, W.W. Assessing Phototoxicity by In Vitro Methods: A Review. IN: In Vitro Skin Toxicology. Irritation, Phototoxicity, Sensitization. 1994. Eds. A. Rougier, A.M. Goldberg, and H.I. Maibach, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. pp. 195-202.

Liebsch, M., H. Spielmann, M. Balls, M. Brand, B. Doring, J. Dupuis, H.G. Holzhutter, G. Klecak, H. L. H. L'Eplattenier, W. W. Lovell, T. Maurer, F. Moldenhauer, L. Moore, W.J.W. Pape, U. Pfannenbecker, J. Potthast, O. de Silva, W. Steiling, and A. Willshaw. First Results of the EC/COLIPA Validation Project, "In Vitro Phototoxicity Testing". IN: In Vitro Skin Toxicology. Irritation, Phototoxicity, Sensitization. 1994. Eds. A. Rougier, A.M. Goldberg, and H.I. Maibach. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. pp 243-251.

Barratt, M.D. and D.A. Basketter. Structure-Activity Relationships for Skin Sensitization: An Expert System. IN: In Vitro Skin Toxicology. Irritation, Phototoxicity, Sensitization. 1994. Eds. A. Rougier, A.M. Goldberg, and H.I. Maibach, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., pp 293-301.

Scholes, E.W., R.U. Pendlington, R.K. Sharma, and D.A. Basketter. Skin Metabolism of Contact Allergens. Toxic. in Vitro 1994. 8: 551-553.

Dixit, M.B., M. West, L.K. Earl, and W.W. Lovell . A Screen for Photoirritants in Cultured Cells. Toxic. in Vitro 1994. 8: 759-761.

Spielmann, H., M. Balls, M. Brand, B. Boring, H.G. Holzhutter, S. Kalweit, G. Klecak, H.L. Eplattenier, M. Liebsch, W.W. Lovell, T. Maurer, F. Moldenhauer, L. Moore, W.J.W. Pape, U. Pfannenbecker, J. Potthast, O. de Silva, W. Steiling, and A. Willshaw. EEC/COLIPA Project on In Vitro Phototoxicity Testing: First Results Obtained with a Balb/c 3T3 Cell Phototoxicity Assay. Toxic. in Vitro 1994. 8: 793-796.

Barratt, M.D., D.A. Basketter, and D.W. Roberts. Skin Sensitization Structure-Activity for Phenyl Benzoates. Toxic. in Vitro 1994. 8: 823-826.

Barratt, M.D., D.A. Basketter, M. Chamberlain, M.P. Payne, G.D. Admans, and J.J. Langowski. Development of an Expert System Rulebase for Identifying Contact Allergens. Toxic. in Vitro 1994 8: 837-839.

Howes, D. A Strategy for the Assessment of Percutaneous Absorption. Toxic. in Vitro 1994. 8: 851-853.

Whittle, E. and D.A. Basketter. In Vitro Skin Corrosivity Test Using Human Skin. Toxic. in Vitro 1994. 8: 861-863.

Barratt. M.D., D.A. Basketter, M. Chamberlain, and G.D. Admans. An Expert System Rulebase for Identifying Contact Allergens. Toxic in Vitro 1994. 8: 1053-1060.

Cronin, M.T.D. and D.A. Basketter. Multivariate QSAR Analysis of a Skin Sensitization Database. SAR and QSAR in Environmental Research 1994. 2: 159-179.

Spielmann, H., W.W. Lovell, E. Holzle, B.E. Johnson, T. Maurer, M.A. Miranda, W.J.W. Pape, O. Sapora, and D. Sladowski. In Vitro Phototoxicity Testing. The Report and Recommendations of ECVAM Workshop 2. ATLA 1994. 22: 314-348.

Lovell, W. W. A Scheme for In Vitro Screening of Substances for Photoallergenic Potential. Toxic. in Vitro 1993. 7: 95-102.

Whittle, E. and D.A. Basketter. The In Vitro Skin Corrosivity Test. Development of Method of Using Human Skin. Toxic. in Vitro 1993. 7: 265-268.

Whittle, E. and D.A. Basketter. The In Vitro Skin Corrosivity Test. Comparison of In Vitro Human Skin with In Vivo Data. Toxic. in Vitro 1993. 7: 269-273.

Gettings, S.D., S. Azri-Meehan, J. L. Demetrulias, W.E. Dressler, G.B. Kasting, C.K. Kelling, and D. Howes. The Use of In Vitro Skin Penetration Data in the Safety Assessment of Cosmetic Formulations. Prediction of Percutaneous Penetration. 1993 Vol. 3B. 621-637.

Cronin, M.T.D. and D.A. Basketter. A QSAR Evaluation of Existing Contact Allergy Database. IN: Trends in QSAR and Molecular Modelling 92. Ed. C. G. Wermuth, ESCOM, Leiden, pp 297-298.

Basketter, D.A., D. Roberts, M.T.D. Cronin, and E. Scholes. The Value of a Local Lymph Node Assay in the Development of QSAR's for Skin Sensitization Potential. IN: Trends in QSAR and Molecular Modelling 92. Ed. C.G. Wermuth, ESCOM, Leiden, pp 580-583.

Basketter, D.A., E. Selbie, E.W. Scholes, D. Lees, I. Kimber, and P.A. Botham. Results with OECD Recommended Positive Control Sensitizers in the Maximization, Buehler and Local Lymph Node Assays. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1993. 31: 63-67.

Scholes, E.W., D.A. Basketter, A.E. Sarll, I. Kimber, C.D. Evans, K. Miller, M.C. Robbins, P.T.C. Harrison, and S. J. Waite. The Local Lymph Node Assay: Results of a Final Inter-Laboratory Validation Under Field Conditions. J. Appl. Toxicol. 1992. 12: 217-222.

Basketter, D.A. and E.W. Scholes. Comparison of the Local Lymph Node Assay with the Guinea-Pig Maximization Test for the Detection of a Range of Contact Allergens. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1992. 30: 65-69.

Kimber, I. And D.A. Basketter. The Murine Local Lymph Node Assay: A Commentary on Collaborative Studies and New Directions. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1992. 30: 165-169.

Botham, P.A., T.J. Hall, R. Dennett, J.C. McCall, D.A. Basketter, E. Whittle, M. Cheeseman, D.J. Esdaile, and J. Gardner. The Skin Corrosivity Test In Vitro: Results of an Interlaboratory Trial. Toxic. in Vitro 1992. 6: 191-194.

Whittle, E. and D. Basketter. Assessment of Skin Corrosivity In Vitro. 3^rd CESIO International Surfactants Congress. 1992. June.

Basketter, D.A., D.W. Roberts, M. Cronin, and E.W. Scholes. The Value of the Local Lymph Node Assay in Quantitative Structure-Activity Investigations. Contact Dermatitis 1992. 27: 137-142.

Scholes, E.W., D.A. Basketter, W.W. Lovell, A.E. Sarll, and R. U. Pendlington. The Identification of Photoallergic Potential in the Local Lymph Node Assay. Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed. 1992. 8: 249-254.

Basketter, D.A., E.W. Scholes, I. Kimber, P.A. Botham, J. Hilton, K. Miller, M.C. Robbins, P.T.C. Harrison, and S.J. Waite. Interlaboratory Evaluation of the Local Lymph Node Assay with 25 Chemicals and Comparison with Guinea Pig Test Data. Toxicol. Methods 1991 1: 30-43.

Kimber, I., J. Hilton, D.A. Basketter, E.W. Scholes, K. Miller, M.C. Robbins, P.T.C. Harrison, T.J.B. Gray, and S.J. Waite. The Murine Local Lymph Node Assay: Results of an Inter-Laboratory Trial. Toxicol. Lett. 1991. 55: 203-213.

Parish, W.E. Inflammatory Mediators Applied to In Vitro Toxicology. Studies on Mediator Release and Two Cell Systems. Toxic. in Vitro 1990. 4: 231-241.

O'Brien, K.A.F., P.A. Jones, and J. Rockley. Evaluation of An Agarose Overlay Assay to Determine the Irritation Potential of Detergents and Detergent-Based Products. Toxic. in Vitro 1990. 4: 311-313.

Lovell, W.W. Screening Test for Phototoxins Using Solutions of Simple Biochemicals. Toxic. in Vitro 1990. 4: 318-320.

Basketter, D.A. and D.W. Roberts. A Quantitative Structure-Activity/Dose Relationship for Contact Allergenic Potential of Alkyl Group Transfer Agents. Toxic. in Vitro 1990. 4: 686-687.

Young, J.R., M. J. How, A.P. Walker, and W.M.H. Worth. Classification as Corrosive or Irritant to Skin of Preparations Containing Acidic or Alkaline Substances Without Testing on Animals. Toxic. in Vitro 1988. 2: 19-26.

Parish, W.E. Evaluation of In Vitro Predictive Tests for Irritation and Allergic Sensitization. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1986. 24: 481-494.

Lock, S.O. and Friend J.V. Phototoxicity Testing In Vitro: Evaluation of Mammalian Cell Culture Techniques. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1986. 24: 789-793.

Parish, W.E. Relevance of In Vitro Tests to In Vivo Acute Skin Inflammation: Potential In Vitro Applications of Skin Keratome Slices, Neutrophils, Fibroblasts, Mast Cells and Macrophages. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1985. 23: 275-285.

Barratt, M.D. and K. R. Brown. Photochemical Binding of Photoallergens to Human Serum Albumin: A Simple In Vitro Method for Screening Potential Photoallergens. Toxicol. Lett. 1985. 24: 1-6.

Barratt, M.D. and D.M. Rickwood. Binding of a Spin-Labelled Photoallergen to Human Serum Albumin. Biophys. Chem. 1984. 19: 69-73.

Gibson, W. T. and M. R. Teall. Interactions of C₁₂ Surfactants with the Skin: Studies on Enzyme Release and Percutaneous Absorption In Vitro. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 1983. 21: 581-586.

Prottey, C. and T.F.M. Ferguson. The Metabolic Activity of Primary Cultures of Guinea Pig Dorsal Skin Cells. Brit. J. Dermatol. 1974. 91: 681-686.

Friend, J.V. and N. Lane. In Vitro Studies of Contact Hypersensitivity: The Effect of the Haptens 2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) and 2,4-Dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) and of Hapten-Protein Conjugates on the Migration of Guinea Pig Peritoneal Exudate Cells. Immunology 1973. 25: 869-874.